Read Sources A and B.

1. Write briefly about what they tell you about the nature of the work undertaken by men and women in pastoral households.
2. Why do you think pastoral groups often live on the edges of forests?

Source A

Writing in the 1850s, G.C. Barnes gave the following description of the Gujjars of Kangra:

‘In the hills the Gujjars are exclusively a pastoral tribe – they cultivate scarcely at all. The Gaddis keep flocks of sheep and goats and the Gujjars, wealth consists of buffaloes. These people live in the skirts of the forests, and maintain their existence exclusively by the sale of the milk, ghee, and other produce of their herds. The men graze the cattle, and frequently lie out for weeks in the woods tending their herds. The women repair to the markets every morning with baskets on their heads, with little earthen pots filled with milk, butter-milk and ghee, each of these pots containing the proportion required for a day’s meal. During the hot weather the Gujjars usually drive their herds to the upper range, where the buffaloes rejoice in the rich grass which the rains bring forth and at the same time attain condition from the temperate climate and the immunity from venomous flies that torment their existence in the plains.’

From: G.C. Barnes, Settlement Report of Kangra, 1850-55.

Source B

The accounts of many travellers tell us about the life of pastoral groups. In the early nineteenth century, Buchanan visited the Gollas during his travel through Mysore. He wrote:

‘Their families live in small villages near the skirt of the woods, where they cultivate a little ground, and keep some of their cattle, selling in the towns the produce of the dairy. Their families are very numerous, seven to eight young men in each being common. Two or three of these attend the flocks in the woods, while the remainder cultivate their fields, and supply the towns with firewood, and with straw for thatch.’

From: Francis Hamilton Buchanan, A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar (London, 1807).

Answer

1. The men of the Gujjars tribe grazed the cattle in the woods. They remained in woods in summer with their cattle at a height of 10000 to 11000 ft. They milked the buffaloes and made ghee for selling. The women sold milk, curd, ghee and other produce to nearby market on daily basis. The men of Gaddi tribe moved to woods with their goats and sheep to rear them. They spent their winter in the low hills of Siwalik range, grazing their flocks in scrub forests. By April they moved north and spent the summer in Lahul and Spiti. Similarly, the men of Golla tribe worked in fields and few of them grazed the cattle in nearby forests. They sold firewoods and straws in nearby markets.

2. Pastoral groups often live on the edges of forests because it allows them to graze their animals in the forest while also cultivating fields adjacent to the forest area. By residing near the forest, they conveniently handle both activities: selling milk and milk products from their animals in the local market and meeting their food requirements through cultivation.

Write a comment on the closure of the forests to grazing from the standpoint of:

1. a forester
2. a pastoralist

Answer

1. A forester — As a forester, I would support the closure of forests to grazing. Grazing can disrupt ecosystems, damage vegetation, and negatively impact wildlife populations. Grazing can hinder natural forest regeneration. Young trees and saplings are vulnerable to damage from livestock. Over-grazing leads to soil erosion. I would ensure the closure of the forests to grazing as it will protect the forests from all the above listed factors.

2. A pastoralist — As a pastoralist, I would face many challenges as my livelihood directly depends upon the grazing of animals in forests. Grazing provides fodder for my livestock. If forests are closed, we would need alternative grazing areas. Finding suitable land for livestock will become difficult for us, especially in regions with limited pastureland.

Imagine you are living in the 1890s. You belong to a community of nomadic pastoralists and craftsmen. You learn that the Government has declared your community as a Criminal Tribe.

1. Describe briefly what you would have felt and done.
2. Write a petition to the local collector explaining why the Act is unjust and how it will affect your life.

Answer

1. As a member of the nomadic pastoralist and craftsman community, I would have experienced a mix of shock, fear, and anger upon learning that the Government has labelled us as a “Criminal Tribe.” Living our traditional way of life, moving with our herds and practicing our crafts and suddenly being branded as criminals would have made me think of our livelihood and safety. Restrictions on movement, loss of grazing lands, and social isolation would have impacted us hugely. Despite the fear and anger, we would have come together as a community. Mutual support, sharing information, and planning our move would have been crucial. We might have sought legal advice or organized protests.

2. To the Honorable Collector,

Subject: Unjust Labelling of Our Community as a Criminal Tribe

Respected Sir,

We, the undersigned members of the nomadic pastoralist and craftsman community, humbly submit this petition to express our deep concern and protest against the recent declaration that categorizes us as a “Criminal Tribe.” We believe this act is unjust, discriminatory, and detrimental to our way of life. Our community has a rich history of mobility, craftsmanship, and self-sufficiency. For generations, we have moved with our herds and practiced traditional crafts. The label of “Criminal Tribe” has been imposed upon us without any concrete evidence of criminal activities. We have never engaged in organized crime or posed a threat to society. We earnestly request that the authorities reconsider this unjust classification.

Let us continue our traditions and livelihoods without prejudice.

Thank you for your attention to this matter.

Sincerely ........

Imagine that it is 1950 and you are a 60-year-old Raika herder living in post-Independence India. You are telling your grand-daughter about the changes which have taken place in your lifestyle after Independence. What would you say?

Answer

Back in the days before Independence, our herding community roamed freely across vast stretches of land near the Indus river plains. After 1947, we could no longer move into Sindh and graze our camels on the banks of the Indus, as we had done earlier. The new political boundaries between India and Pakistan stopped our movement. So we had to find new places to go. Our grazing lands were redistributed, and some were even converted into settled agricultural plots. We had to adapt, finding new pastures for our beloved camels and sheep. We had to graze our camels in the agricultural fields after the harvesting was done.

Imagine that you have been asked by a famous magazine to write an article about the life and customs of the Maasai in pre-colonial Africa. Write the article, giving it an interesting title.

Answer

Guardians of the Nature

The Maasai, with their vibrant culture and nomadic lifestyle, have left an indelible mark on the East African landscape. Their existence revolved around their herds—cattle, goats, and sheep. These animals provided sustenance, wealth, and social status. The Maasai organize themselves into age-sets. The elders formed the ruling group and met in periodic councils to decide on the affairs of the community and settle disputes. The warriors consisted of younger people, mainly responsible for the protection of the tribe. They defended the community and organised cattle raids. Raiding was important in a society where cattle was wealth. It is through raids that the power of different pastoral groups was asserted. Young men came to be recognised as members of the warrior class when they proved their manliness by raiding the cattle of other pastoral groups and participating in wars. The warriors wear traditional deep red shukas, brightly beaded Maasai jewelry and carry five-foot, steel tipped spears. Their long pleats of intricately plaited hair are tinted red with ochre. As per tradition they face East to honour the rising sun. Warriors are in charge of society's security while boys are responsible for herding livestock. During the drought season, both warriors and boys assume responsibility for herding livestock.

Find out more about the some of the pastoral communities marked in Figs. 11 and 13.

Figure 11

Figure 13

Answer

Dhangars — The Dhangars are a herding caste of people found majorly in Indian states of Maharashtra and Karnataka. Initially, there were twelve tribes of Dhangars. The Dhangars have been guardians of livestock, weaving traditions, and cultural resilience. Most of them were shepherds, some were blanket weavers, and still others were buffalo herders. The Dhangar shepherds stayed in the central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoon. This was a semi-arid region with low rainfall and poor soil. It was covered with thorny scrub. Nothing but dry crops like bajra could be sown here. In the monsoon this tract became a vast grazing ground for the Dhangar flocks.

Monpas — The Monpa people, also known as the Monpas, are a significant tribe in the northeastern Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. The Monpas are believed to be the only nomadic tribe in Northeast India. They rely on animals such as sheep, cows, yaks, goats, and horses for their livelihood. The Monpas are further divided into six sub-groups based on language variations.

Zulu — Zulu people are a native ethnic group of Southern Africa. They hold a rich cultural heritage and are the largest ethnic group in South Africa. The Zulu were originally a minor clan founded around 1574 by Zulu kaMalandela. Zulus take pride in their ceremonies, such as the Umhlanga (Reed Dance), where young women participate in a dance celebrating purity and womanhood.

Turkana — The Turkana people, also known as the Turkana, are a Nilotic ethnic group native to Turkana County in northwest Kenya. The Turkana inhabit a semi-arid climate region bordering Lake Turkana in the east. The Turkana are mainly semi-nomadic pastoralists who raise camels and weave baskets. Their oral traditions designate them as “the people of the grey bull”, highlighting the significance of domesticated Zebu cattle in their history.

Explain why nomadic tribes need to move from one place to another. What are the advantages to the environment of this continuous movement?

Answer

Nomadic tribes need to move from one place to another in search of new pastures in different seasons. When the pasture gets exhausted or unusable in one place they move their herds and flock to new areas. This continuous movement also allows the pastures to recover and regrow. Movement prevents the overuse or exploitation of pastures. By moving across different regions, nomads help maintain diverse ecosystems. Their presence contributes positively to ecosystem health by preventing habitat degradation and promoting biodiversity.

Discuss why the colonial government in India brought in the following laws. In each case, explain how the law changed the lives of pastoralists:

1. Waste Land rules
2. Forest Acts
3. Criminal Tribes Act
4. Grazing Tax

Answer

1. Waste Land rules — To colonial officials all uncultivated land appeared to be unproductive as it produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce. It was seen as ‘waste land’ that needed to be brought under cultivation. From the mid-nineteenth century, Waste Land Rules were enacted in various parts of the country. By these Rules uncultivated lands were taken over and given to select individuals. In most areas the lands taken over were actually grazing tracts used regularly by pastoralists. So expansion of cultivation inevitably meant the decline of pastures and a problem for pastoralists.

2. Forest Acts — By the mid-nineteenth century, various Forest Acts were being enacted in the different provinces. Through these Acts some forests which produced commercially valuable timber like deodar or sal were declared ‘Reserved’. No pastoralist was allowed access to these forests. It hugely impacted their livelihood. Pastoralists were now prevented from entering many forests that had earlier provided valuable forage for their cattle. As a result they lost their cattle and became poorer. These policies prioritized British economic interests over the well-being of local populations.

3. Criminal Tribes Act — The British colonial government in India brought in the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 due to their suspicion and distrust of nomadic people, including mobile craftsmen, traders, and pastoralists. They preferred ruling over a settled population, which was easier to control and deemed peaceable and law-abiding. The Act forced these communities to live in notified village settlements, restricted their movement without a permit, and subjected them to constant police surveillance. This led to social seclusion, moral alienation, economic hardships, and a significant decrease in their income.

4. Grazing Tax — The colonial government introduced the grazing tax to increase revenue. Pastoralists had to pay tax on each animal they grazed, which was implemented in most pastoral regions by the mid-nineteenth century. The tax rates increased rapidly, and the collection system became more efficient. Cattle herders needed a pass to enter grazing areas, recording the number of cattle and the tax paid. This reduced their cattle numbers and income, making their lives difficult.

Give reasons to explain why the Maasai community lost their grazing lands.

Answer

Before colonial times, Maasailand stretched over a vast area from north Kenya to the steppes of northern Tanzania. The Maasai community lost their grazing lands due to following reasons:

1. In the late nineteenth century, European imperial powers scrambled for territorial possessions in Africa, slicing up the region into different colonies. In 1885, Maasailand was cut into half with an international boundary between British Kenya and German Tanganyika. Subsequently, the best grazing lands were gradually taken over for white settlement and the Maasai were pushed into a small area in south Kenya and north Tanzania.
2. Maasai were confined to an arid zone with uncertain rainfall and poor pastures which were further exploited.
3. From the late nineteenth century, the British colonial government in east Africa also encouraged local peasant communities to expand cultivation. As cultivation expanded, pasturelands were turned into cultivated fields.
4. Large areas of grazing land were also turned into game reserves like the Maasai Mara and Samburu National Park in Kenya and Serengeti Park in Tanzania.

There are many similarities in the way in which the modern world forced changes in the lives of pastoral communities in India and East Africa. Write about any two examples of changes which were similar for Indian pastoralists and the Maasai herders.

Answer

Two examples of changes that were similar for Indian pastoralists and the Maasai herders are:

1. Loss of Grazing Lands — Both communities lost their grazing lands due to the preference given to cultivation. Colonial powers considered uncultivated land as “waste land” and brought it under cultivation. This expansion of cultivation encroached upon grazing tracts regularly used by pastoralists, leading to a decline in available pastures for both Indian pastoralists and the Maasai.
2. Movement Restrictions — The colonial governments imposed restrictions on pastoral communities. They issued permits for movement with livestock. Many forests were declared as reserves in India and also in Africa. Thus, both Indian pastoralists and the Maasai faced restriction on their traditional nomadic way of life.